Parenting Support in Prison
From Rights to Practices
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.31211/interacoes.n48.2025.a7Keywords:
Children’s Rights, Families, Parenting, Parenting Programs, IncarcerationAbstract
This paper provides a narrative literature review on the impact of incarceration of a parental figure in the development and well-being of children. It concludes that these have a higher risk of developing, in the future, mental health problems. As for the family of the incarcerated person, negative effects in family dynamics are highlighted, particularly regarding parenthood and conjugal relations. At the same time, it identifies a group of studies on actions to promote positive and responsive parenting in incarceration, with promising results regarding the improvement of the quality of parent-children relationships, and the reduction of recidivism. Therefore, despite the limitations shown by the literature being reviewed in this paper and its implications for future research, this paper aims to highlight the potentialities of parental intervention in the context of incarceration while emphasising that this type of relational support can become a way of materialising Rights, particularly Children’s Rights.
Downloads
References
Arditti, J. A., & Johnson, E. I. (2022). A family resilience agenda for understanding and responding to parental incarceration. The American psychologist, 77(1), 56–70. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000687
Arditti, J., Lambert-Shute, J., & Joest, K. (2003). Saturday morning at the jail: Implications of incarceration for families and children. Family Relations, 52(3), 195– 204. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2003.00195.x
Arditti, J. A., & McGregor, C. M. (2019). A family perspective: caregiving and family contexts of children with an incarcerated parent. In J.M. Eddy, & J. Poehlmann-Tynan (Eds.), Handbook on children with incarcerated parents, research, policy, and practice (pp.117–130). Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16707-3
Armstrong, E., Eggins, E., Reid, N., Harnett, P., & Dawe, S. (2018). Parenting interventions for incarcerated parents to improve parenting knowledge and skills, parent well-being, and quality of the parent–child relationship: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 14(3), 279–317. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-017-9290-6
Backhaus, S., Gardner, F., Melendez-Torres, G. J., Schafer, M., Knerr, W., & Lachman, J. M. (2023). Parenting interventions to prevent child maltreatment and enhance parent-child relationships with children aged 0-17 years. Report of the Systematic Reviews of Evidence. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240065505
Bartlett, T., & Eriksson, A. (2018). How fathers construct and perform masculinity in a liminal prison space. Punishment & Society, 21(3), 275-294. https://doi.org/10.1177/1462474518757092
Boswell, G. (2002). Imprisoned fathers: The children’s view. Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 41(1), 14-26. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2311.00222
Burnson, C. & Weymouth, L (2019). Infants and young children with incarcerated parents. In J.M. Eddy, & J. Poehlmann-Tynan (Eds.), Handbook on children with incarcerated parents, research, policy, and practice (pp.85–99). Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16707-3
Chipman, S., Olsen, S. F., Klein, S., Hart, C. H., & Robinson, C. C. (2000). Differences in retrospective perceptions of parenting of male and female inmates and non‐inmates. Family Relations, 49(1), 5-11. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2000.00005.x
Children Of Prisoners Europe (COPE) (2014). Annual Report 2014. https://childrenofprisoners.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/COPE_Annual-Report-2014.pdf
Clement, M. J. (1993). Parenting in prison: A national survey of programs for incarcerated women. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 19(1-2), 89–100. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v19n01_06
Comfort, M. (2008). Doing time together: Love and family in the shadow of prison. University of Chicago Press.
Conselho da Europa. (2018). Recomendação do Conselho da Europa sobre as crianças com pais em situação de reclusão. https://rm.coe.int/cm-recommendation-2018-5-concerning-children-with-imprisoned-parents-e/16807b3438
Crétenot, M. (2014), Das práticas nacionais para as recomendações europeias: Iniciativas interessantes de gestão das prisões. Antigone Edizioni/ Observatório Europeu das Prisões: Condições de detenção na União Europeia. https://home.iscte-iul.pt/~apad/PrisoesEuropa/observatorio/PROJ%20CONDICOES%20PRISAO/relatorios%20finais%20Europa/EPO%20initiatives%20PORT.pdf
Cruz, O. (2014, Março, 28). Que Parentalidade? [Comunicação]. Ação de formação do Centro de Estudos Judiciários sobre Temas de Direito da Família e das Crianças, Lisboa. https://repositorio-aberto.up.pt/bitstream/10216/118460/2/308787.pdf
Direção-Geral da Política da Justiça (2025). Estatísticas da Justiça. https://estatisticas.justica.gov.pt/sites/siej/pt-pt
Eddy, J., Martinez, C., & Burraston, B. (2013). A randomized controlled trial of a parent management training program for incarcerated parents: proximal impacts. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 78 (3), 75-93. https://doi.org/10.1111/mono.12022
Eddy, J. M., Martinez, C. R., Jr, Burraston, B. O., Herrera, D., & Newton, R. M. (2022). A Randomized Controlled Trial of a Parent Management Training Program for Incarcerated Parents: Post-Release Outcomes. International journal of environmental research and public health, 19(8), 4605. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084605
Farrell, A. (1998). Mothers offending against their role: An Australian experience. Women and Criminal Justice, 9, 4, 47–67. https://eprints.qut.edu.au/282/1/Women_%26_CJ_Paper.pdf Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., Koss, M. P., & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0749-3797(98)00017-8
Gardner, F., Leijten, P., Harris, V., Mann, J., Hutchings, J., Beecham, J., Bonin, E. M., Berry, V., McGilloway, S., Gaspar, M., Seabra-Santos, M., Orobio de Castro, B., Menting, A., Williams, M., Axberg, U., Morch, W. T., Scott, S., & Landau, S. (2019). Equity effects of parenting interventions for child conduct problems: a pan-European individual participant data meta-analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry, 6(6), 518–527. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30162-2
Glaze, L., & Maruschak, L. (2008). Parents in prison and their minor children. Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report (NCJ222984). Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/pptmc.pdf
Geller A. (2013). Paternal incarceration and father-child contact in fragile families. Journal of marriage and the family, 75(5), 1288–1303. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12056
Granja R., Cunha M. I., Machado H. (2013). Formas alternativas do exercício da parentalidade: Paternidade e maternidade em contexto prisional. Ex Aequo, 28, 73-86.
Granja, R., da Cunha, M. I. P., & Machado, H. (2015). Mothering from prison and ideologies of intensive parenting: Enacting vulnerable resistance. Journal of Family Issues, 36(9), 1212-1232. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X14533541
Granja, R. (2017). Para cá e para lá dos muros: Negociar relações familiares durante a reclusão. Afrontamento.
Hairston, C. F. (1998). The forgotten parent: Understanding the forces that influence incarcerated fathers’ relationships with their children. Child Welfare: Journal of Policy, Practice, and Program, 77(5), 617-637.
Hairston, C.F. (2003). Prisoners and their families: Parenting issues during incarceration. In J. Travis & M. Waul (Eds.), Prisoners once removed: The impact of incarceration and reentry on children, families, and communities. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute Press.
Hairston, C. F. (2007). Focus on children with incarcerated parents: An overview of the research literature. The Annie E. Casey Foundation. https://www.aecf.org/resources/focus-on-children-with-incarcerated-parents
Kazura, K. (2001). Family programming for incarcerated parents: a needs assessment among inmates. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 32(4), 67–83. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v32n04_05
Knudsen, E. M. (2018). The systemic invisibility of children of prisoners. In R. Condry & P. S. Smith (Eds.), Prisons, punishment, and the family. Towards a new sociology of punishment? (pp. 288-303). Oxford University Press
Lee, H., & Wildeman, C. (2021). Assessing mass incarceration’s effects on families. Science (New York, N.Y.), 374(6565), 277–281. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abj7777
Lockwood, K., & Raikes, B. (2016). A difficult disclosure: The dilemmas faced by families affected by parental imprisonment regarding what information to share. In R. Reeves (Ed.), Experiencing imprisonment: Research on the experience of living and working in carceral institutions (pp. 230– 247). Routledge.
Loper, A. B., & Tuerk, E. H. (2006). Parenting Programs for Incarcerated Parents: Current Research and Future Directions. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 17(4), 407-427. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403406292692
Loper, A. B, Clarke, C. N, & Dallaire, D. H (2019). Parenting programs for incarcerated fathers and mothers: Current research and new directions. In J.M. Eddy, & J. Poehlmann-Tynan (Eds.), Handbook on children with incarcerated parents, research, policy, and practice (pp.183-229). Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16707-3
Loper, A. B., & Tuerk, E. H. (2011). Improving the emotional adjustment and communication patterns of incarcerated mothers: Effectiveness of a prison parenting intervention. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20(1), 89–101.
Mangino, M.T. (2013). The plight of children of incarcerated parents. San Francisco Children of Incarcerated Parents Website. https://eu.sj-r.com/story/opinion/columns/2013/10/18/matthew-t-mangino-plight-children/41867093007/
Maruna, S. (2011). Reentry as a rite of passage. Punishment & Society, 13 (1), 3-28. https://doi.org/10.1177/1462474510385
McCormick, A. V., Millar, H. A., Paddock, G. B., & Cohen, I. M. (2014). In the best interests of the child: Strategies for recognizing and supporting Canada’s at-risk population of children with incarcerated parents. https://cjr.ufv.ca/in-the-best-interests-of-the-child-strategies-for-recognizing-and-supporting-canadas-at-risk-population-of-children-with-incarcerated-parents
Millar, H., & Dandurand, Y. (2018). The best interests of the child and the sentencing of offenders with parental responsibilities. Criminal Law Forum. 29(2), 1-51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10609-017-9340-9
Mills, A., & Codd, H. (2007). Prisoners’ families. In Y. Jewkes (Ed.), Handbook on prisons (pp.672-695). Willan Publishing.
Murphey, D., & Cooper, P. M. (2015). Parents behind bars: What happens to their children? Child Trends, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2444.4243
Murray, J. (2005). The effects of imprisonment on families and children of prisoners. In A. Liebling, & S. Maruna (Eds.), The effects of imprisonment (pp. 442-462). Willan Publishing.
Murray, J., & Farrington, D. P. (2005). Parental imprisonment: Effects on boys’ antisocial behaviour and delinquency through the life-course. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 46(12), 1269–1278. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01433.x
Murray, J., Farrington, D. P., Sekol, I., & Olsen, R. F. (2009). Effects of parental imprisonment on child antisocial behaviour and mental health: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 4, 1–105.
Murray, J., Bijleveld, C. C. J. H., Farrington, D. P., & Loeber, R. (2014). Effects of parental incarceration on children: Cross-national comparative studies. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14377-000
Nações Unidas (1990). Convenção sobre os Direitos da Criança. http://www.unicef.pt/
Nickel, J., Garland, C., & Kane, L. (2009). Children of incarcerated parents: An action plan for federal policymakers. Council of State Governments Justice Center. https://csgjusticecenter.org/publications/children-of-incarcerated-parents-an-action-plan-for-federal-policymakers/
Poehlmann, J., Dallaire, D., Loper, A. B., & Shear, L. D. (2010). Children’s contact with their incarcerated parents: Research findings and recommendations. American Psychologist, 65(6), 575-598. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020279
Poehlmann-Tynan, J., & Turney, K. (2021) A developmental perspective on children with incarcerated parents. Child Development Perspectives 15(1): 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12392
Pollock, J. (2003). Parenting programs in women’s prisons. Women and Criminal Justice, 14, 131–154. https://doi.org/10.1300/J012v14n01_04
Purvis, M. (2013). Paternal incarceration and parenting programs in prison: A review paper. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 20(1), 9–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2011.615822
Quilty, S. (2005). The magnitude of experience of parental incarceration in Australia. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 12(1), 256-257. https://doi.org/10.1375/pplt.2005.12.1.256
Reid, J. B., Patterson, G. R., & Snyder, J. (Eds.). (2002). Antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: A developmental analysis and model for intervention. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10468-000
Robbers, M. L. P. (2005). Focus on family and fatherhood: Lessons from Fairfax County’s responsible fatherhood program for incarcerated dads. Justice Policy Journal, 2(1), 1–27
Sanders, M. R., Divan, G., Singhal, M., Turner, K. M. T., Velleman, R., Michelson, D., & Patel, V. (2022). Scaling Up Parenting Interventions is Critical for Attaining the Sustainable Development Goals. Child psychiatry and human development, 53(5), 941–952. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-021-01171-0
Standing Committee on Community Services and Social Equity. (2004). The forgotten victims of crime: Families of offenders and their silent sentence. Legislative Assembly for the Australian Capital Territory. https://www.parliament.act.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/375439/cs06supportservices1.pdf
Torres, A. C., & Gomes, M.C. (2005). Drogas e Prisões: Relações Próximas. Revista Toxicodependências. Edição IDT, (11)2, 23-40. https://www.analiatorres.com/pdf/Drogas_e_prisoes_relacoes_proximas.pdf
Turney, K. (2018). Adverse childhood experiences among children of incarcerated parents. Children and Youth Services Review, 89, 218-225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.04.033
Venema, S. D., Glasbergen, P., Haan, M., Blaauw, E., & Veenstra, R. (2024). Experiences of fatherhood in prison: A thematic analysis of differences between fathers in a family approach programme and a comparison group. European Journal of Criminology, 21(4), 533-555. https://doi.org/10.1177/14773708241227682
Wakefield, S., & Wildeman, C. (2013). Children of the prison boom: Mass incarceration and the future of American inequality. Oxford University Press.
Wakefield, S., & Wildeman, C. (2018). How much might mass imprisonment affect inequality? In R. Condry & P. S. Smith (Eds.), Prisons, punishment, and families: Towards a new sociology of punishment (pp. 58–72). Oxford University Press.
Webster-Stratton, C. (2001). The Incredible Years: Parents, teachers, and children training series. Residential Treatment for Children & Youth, 18(3), 31–45. https://doi.org/10.1300/J007v18n03_04
Wilson, K., Gonzalez, P., Romero, T., Henry,K., & Cerbana, C. (2010). The effectiveness of parent education for incarcerated parents: An evaluation of parenting from prison. The Journal of Correctional Education, 61(2), 114–132.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Inês Coutinho, Maria Filomena Gaspar, Madalena Alarcão

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
The copyright of published works is retained by the author who grants Interações the original publication right. The published article can be used freely for educational, non-commercial purposes, in accordance with the Creative Commons License - Attribution-Non-Commercial 4.0 International, provided that the author, the title of the article, the title and number of the journal are cited together with the URL or DOI of the article.